Knitting

Knitting:

is a method by which thread or yarn may be turned into cloth. Knitting consists of loops called stitches pulled through each other. The active stitches are held on a needle until another loop can be passed through them.

Knitting may be done by hand or by machine. By hand, there are numerous styles and methods. Flat knitting, which can be done on two straight needles or a circular needle, produces a length of cloth, while circular knitting, which is done on circular or double-pointed needles, produces a seamless tube.

Different yarns and knitting needles may be used to achieve different end products by giving the final piece a different colour, texture, weight, or integrity. Using needles of varying sharpness and thickness as well as different varieties of yarn adds to the effect.

Courses and wales

Like weaving, knitting is a technique for producing a two-dimensional fabric from a one-dimensional yarn or thread. In weaving, the threads are always straight, running parallel either lengthwise (warp threads) or crosswise (weft threads). By contrast, the yarn in knitted fabrics follows a meandering path (a course), forming symmetric loops (also called bights or stitches) symmetrically above and below the mean path of the yarn. These meandering loops can be stretched easily in different directions, which gives knitting much more elasticity than woven fabrics; depending on the yarn and knitting pattern, knitted garments can stretch as much as 500%. For this reason, knitting was initially developed for garments that must be elastic or stretch in response to the wearer's motions, such as socks and hosiery. For comparison, woven garments stretch mainly along one direction (the bias) and not very much, unless they are woven from stretchable material such as spandex. Knitted garments are often more form-fitting than woven garments, since their elasticity allows them to follow the body's curvature closely; by contrast, curvature is introduced into most woven garments only with sewn darts, flares, gussets and gores, the seams of which lower the elasticity of the woven fabric still further. Extra curvature can be introduced into knitted garments without seams, as in the heel of a sock; the effect of darts, flares, etc. can be obtained with short rows or by increasing/decreasing the number of stitches. The thread used in weaving is usually much finer than the yarn used in knitting, which can give the knitted fabric more bulk and less drape than a woven fabric.

If they are not secured, the loops of a knitted course will come undone when their yarn is pulled; this is known as ripping out, unravelling knitting, or humourously, frogging^[1]. To secure a stitch, at least one new loop is passed through it. Although the new stitch is itself unsecured ("active"), it secures the stitch(es) suspended from it. A sequence of stitches in which each stitch suspended from the next is called a wale.^[2] To secure the initial stitches of a knitted fabric, a method for casting on is used; to secure the final stitches in a wale, one uses a method of binding off. During knitting, the active stitches are secured mechanically, either from individual hooks (in knitting machines) or from a knitting needle or frame in hand-knitting.

Weft and warp knitting

There are two major varieties of knitting: weft knitting and warp knitting.^[3] In the more common weft knitting, the wales are perpendicular to the course of the yarn; however, in warp knitting, the wales and courses run roughly parallel. In weft knitting, the entire fabric may be produced from a single yarn, by adding stitches to each wale in turn, moving across the fabric as in a raster scan. By contrast, in warp knitting, one yarn is required for every wale. Since a typical piece of knitted fabric may have hundreds of wales, warp knitting is typically done by machine, whereas weft knitting is done by both hand and machine.^[4] Warp-knitted fabrics such as tricot and milanese are resistant to runs, and are commonly used in lingerie.

Weft-knit fabrics may also be knit with multiple yarns, usually to produce interesting color patterns. The two most common approaches are intarsia and double knitting. In intarsia, the yarns are used in well-segregated regions, e.g., a red apple on a field of green; in that case, the yarns are kept on separate spools and only one is knitted at any time. In the more complex double knitting, two or more yarns alternate repeatedly within one row and all the yarns must be carried along the row, as seen in Fair Isle sweaters. Double knitting can produce two separate knitted fabrics simultaneously, e.g., two socks; however, the two fabrics are usually integrated into one, giving it great warmth and excellent drape.

Knit and purl stitches

In securing the previous stitch in a wale, the next stitch can pass through the previous loop either from below or above. If the former, the stitch is denoted as a knit stitch; if the latter, as a purl stitch. The two stitches are related in that a knit stitch seen from one side of the fabric appears as a purl stitch on the other side.

The two types of stitches have a different visual effect; the knit stitches look like "V"'s stacked vertically, whereas the purl stitches look like a wavy horizontal line across the fabric. Patterns and pictures can be created in knitted fabrics by using knit and purl stitches as "pixels"; however, such pixels are usually rectangular, rather than square, depending on the gauge of the knitting. Individual stitches, or rows of stitches, may be made taller by drawing more yarn into the new loop (an elongated stitch), which is the basis for uneven knitting: a row of tall stitches may alternate with one or more rows of short stitches for an interesting visual effect. Short and tall stitches may also alternate within a row, forming a fish-like oval pattern.

Two courses of red yarn illustrating two basic fabric types. The lower red course is knit into the white row below it and is itself knit on the next row; this produces stockinette stitch. The upper red course is purled into the row below and then is knit, consistent with garter stitch.

In the simplest knitted fabrics, all of the stitches are knit or purl; these fabrics are denoted as stockinette and reverse stockinette, respectively. Vertical stripes (ribbing) are possible by having alternating wales of knit and purl stitches; for example, a common choice is 2x2 ribbing, in which two wales of knit stitches are followed by two wales of purl stitches, etc. Horizontal striping (welting) is also possible, by alternating rows of knit and purl stitches; the simplest of these is garter stitch, so-called because its great elasticity made it well-suited for garters. Checkerboard patterns (basketweave) are also possible, the smallest of which is known as seed stitch: the stitches alternate between knit and purl in every wale and along every row.

Fabrics in which the number of knit and purl stitches are not the same, such as stockinette, have a tendency to curl; by contrast, those in which knit and purl stitches are arranged symmetrically (such as ribbing, garter stitch or seed stitch) tend to lie flat and drape well. Wales of purl stitches have a tendency to recede, whereas those of knit stitches tend to come forward. Thus, the purl wales in ribbing tend to be invisible, since the neighboring knit wales come forward. Conversely, rows of purl stitches tend to form an embossed ridge relative to a row of knit stitches. This is the basis of shadow knitting, in which the appearance of a knitted fabric changes when viewed from different directions.^[5]

Typically, a new stitch is passed through a single unsecured ("active") loop, thus lengthening that wale by one stitch. However, this need not be so; the new loop may be passed through an already secured stitch lower down on the fabric, or even between secured stitches (a dip stitch). Depending on the distance between where the loop is drawn through the fabric and where it is knitted, such dip stitches can produce a subtle stippling or long lines across the surface of the fabric, e.g., the lower leaves of a flower. The new loop may also be passed between two stitches in the present row, thus clustering the intervening stitches; this approach is often used to produce a smocking effect in the fabric. The new loop may also be passed through two or more previous stitches, producing a decrease and merging wales together. The merged stitches need not be from the same row; for example, a tuck can be formed by knitting stitches together from two different rows, producing a raised horizontal welt on the fabric.

Not every stitch in a row need be knitted; some may be left as is and knitted on a subsequent row. This is known as slip-stitch knitting.^[6] The slipped stitches are naturally longer than the knitted ones; for example, a stitch slipped for one row before knitting would be roughly twice as tall as its knitted counterparts. This can produce interesting visual effects, although the resulting fabric is more rigid, because the slipped stitch "pulls" on its neighbours and is less deformable. Slip-stitch knitting plays an important role in mosaic knitting, an important technique in hand-knitting patterned fabrics; mosaic-knit fabrics tend to be stiffer than patterned fabrics produced by other methods such as Fair-Isle knitting.^[7]

In some cases, a stitch may be deliberately left unsecured by a new stitch and its wale allowed to disassemble. This is known as drop-stitch knitting, and produces a vertical ladder of see-through holes in the fabric, corresponding to where the wale had been.

Flat knitting versus circular knitting

Main articles: Circular knitting and Flat knitting

Circular knitting (also called "knitting in the round") is a form of knitting that creates a seamless tube. Knitting is worked in rounds (the equivalent of rows in flat knitting) in a spiral. Originally, circular knitting was done using a set of four or five double-pointed knitting needles. Later, circular needles were invented. A circular needle resembles two short knitting needles connected by a cable between them. Flat knitting, on the other hand, is used, in its most basic form, to make flat, rectangular pieces of cloth.^[11] It is done with two straight knitting needles and is worked in rows, horizontal lines of stitches.

Circular knitting is employed to create pieces that are circular or tube-shaped, such as hats, socks, mittens, and sleeves. Flat knitting is usually used to knit flat pieces like scarves, blankets, afghans, and the backs and fronts of sweaters.

There is also such a thing as finger knitting. It is not done like knitting on needles, it is done on your fingers. This produces a tube like piece.

Properties of knitted fabrics

The topology of a knitted fabric is relatively complex. Unlike woven fabrics, where strands usually run straight horizontally and vertically, yarn that has been knitted follows a loopy path along its row, as with the red strand in the diagram at left, in which the loops of one row have all been pulled through the loops of the row below it.

Because there is no single straight line of yarn anywhere in the pattern, a knitted piece can stretch in all directions. This elasticity is unavailable from woven fabrics, which only stretch along the bias. Many modern stretchy garments, even as they rely on elastic synthetic materials for some stretch, also achieve at least some of their stretch through knitted patterns.

Close-up of stockinette stitch

Close-up of reverse stockinette stitch

The basic knitted fabric (as in the diagram, and usually called a stocking or stockinette pattern) has a definite "right side" and "wrong side". On the right side, the visible portions of the loops are the verticals connecting two rows, arranged in a grid of V shapes. On the wrong side, the ends of the loops are visible, both the tops and bottoms, creating a much more bumpy texture sometimes called reverse stockinette. (Despite being the "wrong side," reverse stockinette is frequently used as a pattern in its own right.) Because the yarn holding rows together is all on the front, and the yarn holding side-by-side stitches together is all on the back, stockinette fabric has a strong tendency to curl toward the front on the top and bottom, and toward the back on the left and right side.

Stitches can be worked from either side, and various patterns are created by mixing regular knit stitches with the "wrong side" stitches, known as purl stitches, either in columns (ribbing), rows (garter, welting), or more complex patterns. Each such fabric has different properties: a garter stitch has much more vertical stretch, while ribbing stretches much more horizontally. Because of their front-back symmetry, these two fabrics have little curl, making them popular as edging, even when their stretch properties are not desired.

Different combinations of knit and purl stitches, along with more advanced techniques, generate fabrics of considerably variable consistency, from gauzy to very dense, from highly stretchy to relatively stiff, from flat to tightly curled, and so on.

Close-up of knitting

[edit] Texture

The most common texture for a knitted garment is that generated by the flat stockinette stitch—as seen, though very small, in machine-made stockings and T-shirts—which is worked in the round as nothing but knit stitches, and worked flat as alternating rows of knit and purl. Other simple textures can be made with nothing but knit and purl stitches, including garter stitch, ribbing, and moss and seed stitches. Adding a "slip stitch" (where a loop is passed from one needle to the other) allows for a wide range of textures, including heel and linen stitches, and a number of more complicated patterns.

Close-up of ribbing

Some more advanced knitting techniques create a surprising variety of complex textures. Combining certain increases, which can create small eyelet holes in the resulting fabric, with assorted decreases is key to creating knitted lace, a very open fabric resembling lace. Changing the order of stitches from one row to the next, usually with the help of a cable needle or stitch holder, is key to cable knitting, producing an endless variety of cables, honeycombs, ropes, and Aran sweater patterning. Entrelac forms a rich checkerboard texture by knitting small squares, picking up their side edges, and knitting more squares to continue the piece.

The appearance of a garment is also affected by the weight of the yarn, which describes the thickness of the spun fibre. The thicker the yarn, the more visible and apparent stitches will be; the thinner the yarn, the finer the texture.

[edit] Colour

Plenty of finished knitting projects never use more than a single colour of yarn, but there are many ways to work in multiple colors. Some yarns are dyed to be either variegated (changing color every few stitches in a random fashion) or self-striping (changing every few rows). More complicated techniques permit large fields of colour (intarsia, for example), busy small-scale patterns of color (such as Fair Isle), or both (double knitting and slip-stitch colour, for example).

Yarn with multiple shades of the same hue are called ombre, while a yarn with multiple hues may be known as a given colorway — a green, red and yellow yarn might be dubbed the "Parrot Colorway" by its manufacturer, for example. Heathered yarns contain small amounts of fibre of different colours, while tweed yarns may have greater amounts of different coloured fibres.

[edit] Process

1904 illustration of knitting

There are many hundreds of different knitting stitches used by knitters. A piece of knitting begins with the process of casting on (also known as "binding on"), which involves the initial creation of the stitches on the needle. Different methods of casting on are used for different effects: one may be stretchy enough for lace, while another provides a decorative edging — Provisional cast-ons are used when the knitting will continue in both directions from the cast-on. There are various method employed to "cast on," such as the "thumb method" (also known as "slingshot" or "long-tail" cast-ons), where the stitches are created by a series of loops that will, when knitted, give a very loose edge ideal for "picking up stitches" and knitting a border; the "double needle method" (also known as "knit-on" or "cable cast-on"), whereby each loop placed on the needle is then "knitted on," which produces a firmer edge ideal on its own as a border; and many more. The number of active stitches remains the same as when cast on unless stitches are added (an increase) or removed (a decrease).

Most Western-style knitters follow either the English style (in which the yarn is held in the right hand) or the Continental style (in which the yarn is held in the left hand). A third but less common method, called combination knitting, may also be used.^[16]

Once the knitted piece is finished, the remaining live stitches are "cast off." Casting (or "binding") off loops the stitches across each other so they can be removed from the needle without unravelling the item. Although the mechanics are different from casting on, there is a similar variety of methods.

In knitting certain articles of clothing, especially larger ones like sweaters, the final knitted garment will be made of several knitted pieces, with individual sections of the garment knit separately and then sewn together. Seamless knitting, where a whole garment is knit as a single piece, is also possible. Elizabeth Zimmermann is probably the best-known proponent of seamless or circular knitting techniques. Smaller items, such as socks and hats, are usually knit in one piece on double-pointed needles or circular needles. (See Circular knitting.)

Knitting needles

Main article: Knitting needle

The process of knitting has three basic tasks: (1) the active (unsecured) stitches must be held so they don't drop; (2) these stitches must be released sometime after they are secured; and (3) new bights of yarn must be passed through the fabric, usually through active stitches, thus securing them. In very simple cases, knitting can be done without tools, using only the fingers to do these tasks; however, knitting is usually carried out using tools such as knitting needles, knitting machines or rigid frames. Depending on their size and shape, the rigid frames are called knitting boards, knitting rings (also called knitting looms) or knitting spools (also known as knitting knobbies, knitting nancies, or corkers). Other tools are used to prepare yarn for knitting, to measure and design knitted garments, or to make knitting easier or more comfortable.

Knitting needles in a variety of sizes (US 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13 and 15 from the bottom). The US size 7 and 15 needles are bamboo and wood, respectively, whereas the others are aluminum. Having a smoother surface, metal needles tend to produce faster knitting but stitches are more likely to slide off by accident.

There are three basic types of knitting needles (also called "knitting pins"). The first and most common type consists of two slender, straight sticks tapered to a point at one end, and with a knob at the other end to prevent stitches from slipping off. Such needles are usually 10-16 inches long but, due to the compressibility of knitted fabrics, may be used to knit pieces significantly wider. The most important property of needles is their diameter, which ranges from below 2 mm to 25 mm (roughly 1 inch). The diameter affects the size of stitches, which affects the gauge of the knitting and the elasticity of the fabric. Thus, a simple way to change gauge is to use different needles, which is the basis of uneven knitting. Although knitting needle diameter is often measured in millimeters, there are several different size systems, particularly those specific to the United States, the United Kingdom and Japan; a conversion table is given at knitting needle. Such knitting needles may be made out of any materials, but the most common materials are metals, wood, bamboo, and plastic. Different materials have different frictions and grip the yarn differently; slick needles such as metallic needles are useful for swift knitting, whereas rougher needles such as bamboo are less prone to dropping stitches. The knitting of new stitches occurs only at the tapered ends, and needles with lighted tips have been sold to allow knitters to knit in the dark.

Double-pointed knitting needles usually come in sets of four (US size 1, on right) or five (US size 8, on left).

The second type of knitting needles are straight, double-pointed knitting needles (also called "dpns"). Double-pointed needles are tapered at both ends, which allows them to be knit from either end. Dpns are typically used for circular knitting, especially smaller tube-shaped pieces such as sleeves, collars, and socks; usually one needle is active while the others hold the remaining active stitches. Dpns are somewhat shorter (typically 7 inches) and are usually sold in sets of four or five.

Circular knitting needles in three different lengths and sizes. The tips of the outermost, longest one is US size 5 and chrome-plated for speed, whereas the innermost tips are wood and US size 15; the middle red metal tips are US size 9.

Cable needles are a special case of dpns, although they usually are not straight, but dimpled in the middle. Cable needles are typically very short (a few inches), and are used to hold stitches temporarily while others are being knitted. Cable patterns are made by permuting the order of stitches; although one or two stitches may be held by hand or knit out of order, cables of three or more generally require a cable needle.

The third needle type consists of circular needles, which are long, flexible double-pointed needles. The two tapered ends (typically 5 inches (130 mm) long) are rigid and straight, allowing for easy knitting; however, the two ends are connected by a flexible strand (usually nylon) that allows the two ends to be brought together. Circular needles are typically 24-60 inches long, and are usually used singly or in pairs; again, the width of the knitted piece may be significantly longer than the length of the circular needle. Special kits are available that allow circular needles of various lengths and diameters to be made as needed; rigid ends of various diameters may be screwed into strands of various lengths. The ability to work from either end of one needle is convenient in several types of knitting, such as slip-stitch versions of double knitting. Circular needles may be used for flat or circular knitting.

Textile

Textiles - all fabrics made by weaving, felting, knitting, braiding, or netting, from the various textile fibers (see fiber).

Types of Textiles

Textiles are classified according to their component fibers into silk, wool, linen, cotton, such synthetic fibers as rayon, nylon, and polyesters, and some inorganic fibers, such as cloth of gold, glass fiber, and asbestos cloth. They are also classified

The Textile Book (Chap. 10 "Industry") » Read Now

by Colin Gale, Jasbir Kaur.

What Is Textiles? Whenever we talk about what makes our species unique and different from all others on the planet, two abilities are raised as evidence - language and the power of invention. There are perhaps a handful of inventions so central to our being and our ordinary lives that we have almost forgotten how remarkable they are. Cloth is one of these; like basic mathematics we find its nature so obvious and its presence so universal that we often overlook the genius of its invention. In considering what textiles is, we must remember that the origin of the earliest and humblest cloth is lost to us; it pre-dates our recorded history, it precedes the age of metals and the invention of the wheel. As our civilizations have grown, so has fabric developed with us, an integral part of every cultural nuance, a resource in every struggle, a comfort in the most personal and domestic spheres of our lives. Each of us has a relationship with fabric from cradle to grave.4 Cloth has also become the basis of a vast textile industry. Like electricity, a much newer arrival, textiles is an industry which is part of the very rhythm and pulse of humanity. We can barely conceive of how different it makes our lives. There is a famous model of human motivation, called Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1970); like all ideas it has its critics, but it is a useful way to measure and compare the importance of the things we do and the things we have. Among the seven categories of human need that Maslow identifies, textiles could be deemed to have a role in each one. Few other ‘arts’, except perhaps for architecture and clothing, have a place in fulfilling every human need, from basic survival to spiritual development. Textiles provide fundamentals such as warmth and protection; they help us to identify with one another and can signal social status and role. For those who work in textiles, it is possible to develop pride in one's craft and to explore a world of endless material opportunities, to create something of stunning beauty. Finally, for textiles professionals their work can become their vocation, their identity inseparable from their practice. In this book the intention is to map out a subject and practice so great that none seem to have attempted it, in its entirety, before. Textiles leaves a huge trace in its wake and busies itself only with the current and the future; few lift their head up to survey the endless vista that it constitutes. Within textiles is art and science, craft, technology and design, industry, history, culture and politics. For humanity The Culture Place of Textiles It is interesting to reflect on how textiles has affected civilization and culture, although it is improbable we could adequately measure its influence. The story of textiles begins before the recording of human culture. With regard to the earliest civilizations, we have little idea what the psychological, spiritual or social impact of fabric was. We know that textiles found a place in every society around the world and that textile skills must have been widely communicated. We also know that textiles must have been one of the very earliest of tradable commodities. By its ubiquitous nature textiles has touched the lives of millions of individuals, shaping their experiences, their hearts and their minds. Because textiles has been a part of so many different cultures and lives, it is difficult to suggest that there would be some common and universal experience of it. However it is worth attempting to portray some of the starting points of a cultural analysis; how textiles has been involved in the best and the worst of human endeavours; how it has been central in the development of modern society; how it touches the human psyche. In this chapter a few analyses and examples are brought together to portray the scope and complexity of textiles' cultural influence, but they are not definitive. Each reader will be able to find examples and analyses more pertinent to his or her own culture and interests. The examples touch on a few standard issues of culture – gender, identity, politics and modern life. Gentility and Gender One common perception of textiles is that it is a feminine art. There have been enough male weavers throughout history to dispel that belief but in many circles the perception persists and it is revealing that it should. It is also true to say that the majority of textile design courses throughout the world are populated largely by women. In terms of practicality, realistically it seems a little unlikely to presume that all women have some special predisposition, some sense of elegance or sensitivity, that provides them an exclusive relationship with fabric. Far more likely, the somewhat demeaning observation that small hands and little fingers facilitate the execution of fiddly work, as is often the case in electronic component assembly. However the true reasons underlying the special relationship with textiles are really sourceable elsewhere, to the social relationships between men and women, between Perceptions of Fabric In recent years there has been a dynamic shift in attitudes toward textiles, and a new type of textile designer has challenged traditional forms of construction and content. As a result of a broadening vocabulary of materials, processes and techniques, textile designers are faced with more creative choice than ever before. New sensitivities and responses are also called for. On another level, attitudes and activities within the practice now mirror all facets of contemporary life; textile designers can be radical, funky, technical, conservative or serene; tradition has loosened. Many of the exciting changes that have happened in fabric in recent years have acted as a creative stimulus for other design disciplines. This versatile medium now supplies the worlds of fashion and interiors with an increasing and sometimes challenging range of materials and products. The fashion designer now constantly looks for original, innovative materials to work with, making fabric a fundamental part of contemporary fashion statements. For the interior designer or architect, new textiles offer everything from the complete co-ordinated chilled look to eclectic zany mixes. Whether they are looking for harmony, drama or functionality there is always one or more of these on offer, and quite often all three of them at the same time. An increasingly diverse and sophisticated consumer market has witnessed innovations in fabric blends, the use of new technologies and the amazing march of synthetics. The effect of this combination has been the ability to explore new surface qualities of matt and shine as well as new combinations of weight and performance, and to reinvigorate old yarns and traditional fabric patterns. The look, the feel and the drape of fabric has entered a new era. No longer is the use of materials restricted to a perennial function: sportswear enters streetwear, safety and protective clothing can influence couture. These dynamic fusions in their own way stimulate further opportunities - there are new surfaces to print on, and fabric development starts to play with surface qualities as variable as the difference between paper and rubber, between moss and cellophane. New Fabrics, New Aesthetics The fusion of technology and tradition has revealed itself in a diverse assortment of new fabrics and materials, impeccably mirroring changes in lifestyle and the The Textile Designer The term ‘textile designer’ no longer has a simple definition - the role comprises a myriad of descriptions, including: engineer, inventor, scientist, designer and creative. Textile designers have to comprehend the requirements of the textile manufacturer and the intricacies of the marketplace. Starting with a consideration of the eventual use of a fabric, they develop ideas and realize their concepts. Marketable fabrics are created on the basis of informed decisions about colour, construction, composition, surface, pattern and yarn structure. Depending on the textile designer's area of expertise, be it creative or scientific, design outcomes can range from fabrics for use in fashion and interiors to highly complex, technologically advanced, performance materials. Areas of application range from aerospace to the world of sports. A textile designer has to find the right balance between creativity, innovation and commercialism. Career options in textile design vary around the world but they can include selling designs directly to companies or other types of designer; selling through textile agents; working in a company that specializes in textile design; working in a special design section of a product manufacturer. Company environments are typically described as a ‘design studio’. Designers who sell directly, sell through agents or have no fixed employment would generally be classified as ‘freelance designers’. Categories or types of textile designer within the fashion and interior worlds range from the conceptual to the commercial and the chemical to the creative. Each is found in a variety of environments, working from home, in a studio or agency, in industry or a laboratory, linking them to parallel worlds of arts, culture, industry, science and commerce. In a country like the UK a large number of textile design graduates seek to establish themselves as freelance designers, many within a year of leaving higher education. This vocation always proves to be a popular choice and is seen as a flexible and glamorous career option: possibly the potential reward of fame and recognition among peers is the driving force behind decisions to enter this type of employment. There are various levels of entry into the world of textile design, and the idea of market segmentation, of a high, middle and low, is shared with other sectors of the textile industry. Distinctions between these levels are based on issues of creative quality, exclusivity and costs. The status and recognition, which is associated with entry at the higher level, is probably that most desired by design graduates. This is

The Designer Maker

Designer-maker is a title or term recently used in some countries to describe some­
one who designs and produces items in small or batch quantities, usually operating
as an independent or in a small-business context. The term itself seems to be gaining
a growing international acceptance and is applicable to a range of design disciplines
including textiles, furniture, ceramic and product design. Designer-maker practices
have recently been the subject of an exhibition, Industry of One: Designer-Makers
in Britain 1981–2001, at the UK Crafts Council Gallery, although the use of the
term is somewhat retrospective. The term is also currently in use in Australia, as
evidenced by the Designer Makers Tasmania Co-operative Society (www.designer
makers.com.au). For textile designers and craftspeople the designer-maker model
of practice represents a new and emergent career opportunity. Textile designer­
makers produce items across the range of home, lifestyle and fashion goods - for
example cushions, scarves and bags. They may also incorporate other materials
and technologies creating such products as lighting, room dividers, screens and
blinds. Some designer-makers are truly interdisciplinary, covering more than one
design discipline or marketing a co-ordinated collection of products. The term is
a useful one allowing some distinctions between different types of business, and
also helps to highlight the often complex relationship between designing, making
and manufacturing in very small or ‘micro’ businesses based around one or two
creative makers.

The term designer-maker is often applied on the simple basis that work produced
is contemporary and stylish, but it is worth making a distinction between a craft
approach and a design approach to making. In fact there is often a continuum
between the two approaches. Traditionally craftspeople, while sometimes producing
batches of product that are the same, will retain personal control over the individual
making of the product from beginning to end. It may also be the case that their
design vision is only reachable through a craft process, and that industrial
manufacture or contracting out will not achieve the effects they desire Gillian Little produces a limited edition of hand-woven scarves in natural fibres and
vegetable colours to create intriguing woven structures. Wool, cotton, silk and linen are
skilfully worked together on the loom and later a burn-out technique creates a skeletal
framework of fibres. (Jones, B., 1997)

The Craftperson

Essentially and absolutely a craftsperson is a maker. Craft textiles, as a distinct
category, are commonly perceived as multi-media, exploring the inherent qualities
of different textile materials, sometimes in combination with other materials and
objects. Modern craftspeople, in the process of establishing their practice, pursue
and explore textiles in a wide variety of commercial and professional contexts.
Often they draw on a range of cultural issues, or adapt to social trends, and form
an individual, personal and expressive textile language. As stated previously, there
are many similarities between the textile craftsperson and the textile designer­
maker, which can give rise to confusion. There are major differences in the way
they produce textiles but their modes of professional practice are alike; they may
supply the same markets; operate within a comparable model of studio practice;
finally, their work or products may be perceived in a similar context by the viewer.
The craft approach to textiles is very much process-led; the actual pursuit of making
by hand is of paramount importance for the craftsperson.

The personal interaction with making and the control this gives to the maker is
indicative of craftspeople's attitude to their work. This is contrary to the attitude
of designer-makers, who are not worried about using ready-assembled components
or the services of a third party in the making process. However, we cannot escape
the fact that there is a craft element underpinning the design process which the
designer-maker is involved with, simply because to create a prototype calls for a
‘hands-on’ approach. Eventually, designer-makers choose to have their product
completely or partly produced or manufactured by someone other than themselves.
Having said this, today such craftspeople as Miglena Kazaski originate their product
by means of craft, but in her case, in order to deal with the volume of orders
placed with her, she is left with no alternative but to out-source the manpower
required to carry out the work (Hoggard and Coatts, 2000: 38). Despite this, we
can continue to term her trade as craft-based because her outworkers are still
performing their tasks by hand and not by way of an industrially mechanized
process.

When it comes to textile crafts, we cannot overemphasize the importance of
the sense of touch which can carry a status at least equal to visual aesthetics. Also
the dexterity of hands and fingers provide the craftsperson with creative oppor­
tunities not matched by machinery. Given this, the critical ‘hands-on’ philosophy

The Textile Artist

It is possible to develop a very personal relationship with textile work. For many
practitioners this will dictate a career route or a set of experiences that lead them
to undertake what is commonly called textile art. In so doing they may well
experience difficulties of creative identity and status, because textile art is as yet
an uncertain definition of practice. This chapter provides an overview of what
textile art currently entails and offers observations on the philosophical and
institutional problems it can provoke when compared to dealings with fine art or
textile craft. Much of the chapter pursues and tests the comparison with fine art,
as this is often a prime source of confusion, but it might equally have pursued and
tested the difference with textile craft and design. Nonetheless there is sufficient
material to indicate the professional dilemmas and questions facing the contempo­
rary textile artist, not least being to determine what textile art actually is.

Textile art (or alternatively fibre art) is a term that has gained increasing currency
in recent decades and is used to describe textile works that, like sculpture, paintings
or installation, can exist in galleries or public spaces. While some modern textile
art can be seen to bear similarities to activities and material approaches within
modern fine art, for example the work of Eva Hesse (Lippard, 1976), it provides a
broader practice that can include decorative values or the intrinsic pleasurable
qualities of fabric. The vast majority of contemporary textile art can be seen to
have grown directly out of the more generic textile art and crafts traditions,
particularly weaving, embroidery and tapestry, as these have mirrored the evolution
of modernism in other creative disciplines. On occasion when textiles has found
itself adjacent to some art historical period or group, it has undergone a degree of
inclusion within the art historical perspective of cultural history, as for example
the weavers of the Bauhaus (Weltge, 1998) or the textile designs of Russian
Constructivism - particularly those created during the 1920s by artists such as
Stepanova and Popova. The term is now widely understood but not in all countries,
and in various parts of the world textile art does not exist as a defined form separate
from fine art or textile craft. Many people find that both the use of the term and
the characteristics of the work create problems of categorization. For these reasons
textile art is an unclear concept, but remains nonetheless an increasingly visible
and popular group of practices, with many willing to take on the mantle of ‘textile
artist’.

Globel Textiles Tradition

The world is rich in textile traditions - in its entirety, the subject merits an
encyclopedia and a sophisticated reading. The intention here is to give the reader
a tentative overview and introduce some of the many complexities of the subject.
The main emphasis provided here is on Asian textiles including those of Indonesia,
Japan, China and India; there are also some references to African, European,
Australian and American traditions. There is no substitute for seeing textiles and,
particularly in respect of this chapter, the reader would be well advised to seek
out examples of the work mentioned. Throughout the world there are many
collections documenting textile traditions, some broad-based and others more
focused on specific cultures or regions. Apart from specialist publications, a variety
of textiles can now be viewed on the web (www.artlex.1/ArtLex/1/textile.html)
along with scholarly research (Tanaka, 1995), thus increasing access to a quite
remarkable diversity of styles, technique, history and forms. There are book
publishers' sites such as the Indian www.vedamsbooks.1/textile.htm and useful
web ‘portals’, such as Gwendolyn A. Magee's www.quiltethnic.com, which
provides links to sites covering African, African-American, Asian, Haitian, South
American and Native American textiles.

It is almost a contradiction in terms to speak of national textile traditions, given
the complex origin of many of the world's textile styles. Textile traditions are
never static nor geographically fixed, and they have constantly changed in response
to interactions between different cultures. This is one of the great strengths of
textiles and a major part of the way it has contributed to the world's cultural
heritage. However, many national textile traditions arose from indigenous textile
crafts, and these typically reflected local cultural traditions and had social meaning
and worth. All people have a sense of their own culture and manifest it in their
arts. For the majority of the world's cultures, textiles have provided a perfect vehicle
for establishing, expressing and maintaining cultural identity. Within textiles various
patterns and fabrics reveal expressions of spirituality, mythology, symbolism,
wealth and tradition. These expressions are particular to each country and each
people, and distinguish one region of the world from another. Textiles also mirror
periods of national history, reflecting the way in which people see themselves,
their culture and their lifestyles at a particular time.

Industry

In this chapter an overview of the textiles industry is provided. The industry is so
large it is not possible to include all branches of it. Similarly there are many different
categorizations that would lead to different types of analysis (for example by
country, by company, by product, by sector and so on) and once again not all
analyses can be covered here. The predominant analysis used is by country,
followed closely by product sector. Together these two provide a good indication
of the complexity and scale of the textiles industry, its role in politics and economics
and its impact on the peoples of the world. The main focus is on fabric and yarn
production rather than, for example, the trade in designs.

There is a general developmental or structural model that can be applied to the
textile industry; the model starts with the cultivation or sourcing of raw materials
then proceeds through subsequent stages of spinning and yarn production, through
to cloth production, through to the making of fabric products such as clothing and
eventually their sale. At each stage in the industrial process from raw material to
consumer product, value is added. For example, cotton thread might be twice the
price of beaten cotton, the making of cloth might add another 150 to 300 per cent,
making up the final product might double or triple the value of the cloth. So the
production of a ready-made suit for export can add 900 per cent to the value of
the original beaten cotton (Alikhani, 1998).

All nations that develop textile industries normally do so as part of general
industrialization, and they inevitably (in seeking greater profit) move toward the
development of textile-product industries, such as furnishing or apparel. As
countries develop industrially, so generally the standard of living increases and so
too does the cost of local labour. This leads to a decline in the preliminary phases
of industrialization, which tend to be labour intensive. By the time a country reaches
the final stages of its industrial development, many aspects of textile production
and manufacture become uneconomic and indigenous textile industry has a
tendency to disappear. In the final phases, more often than not, successful textile
companies in order to survive must have global rather than national strategies.
While this is not the whole story, it is sufficient to begin to understand how and
why textile industry shifts around the world.